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Scanning of an object or environment to collect data on its shape

Making a 3D-model of a Viking belt buckle using a mitt held VIUscan 3D laser scanner.

3D scanning is the process of analyzing a existent-earth object or environment to collect data on its shape and possibly its appearance (e.g. color). The collected data can and so be used to construct digital 3D models.

A 3D scanner can be based on many unlike technologies, each with its ain limitations, advantages and costs. Many limitations in the kind of objects that tin can be digitised are withal present. For example, optical engineering may encounter many difficulties with dark, shiny, reflective or transparent objects. For instance, industrial computed tomography scanning, structured-light 3D scanners, LiDAR and Time Of Flight 3D Scanners can be used to construct digital 3D models, without subversive testing.

Collected 3D data is useful for a wide multifariousness of applications. These devices are used extensively by the entertainment industry in the product of movies and video games, including virtual reality. Other mutual applications of this applied science include augmented reality,[1] motion capture,[2] [3] gesture recognition,[four] robotic mapping,[5] industrial pattern, orthotics and prosthetics,[6] contrary engineering and prototyping, quality control/inspection and the digitization of cultural artifacts.[7]

Functionality [edit]

The purpose of a 3D scanner is unremarkably to create a 3D model. This 3D model consists of a polygon mesh or point cloud of geometric samples on the surface of the subject. These points can then be used to extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process called reconstruction). If colour information is nerveless at each bespeak, so the colours or textures on the surface of the subject tin as well be determined.

3D scanners share several traits with cameras. Similar most cameras, they have a cone-like field of view, and like cameras, they tin can merely collect information about surfaces that are not obscured. While a camera collects colour information almost surfaces within its field of view, a 3D scanner collects distance information almost surfaces inside its field of view. The "picture" produced by a 3D scanner describes the distance to a surface at each signal in the pic. This allows the 3 dimensional position of each bespeak in the picture to exist identified.

In some situations, a single scan volition not produce a consummate model of the bailiwick. Multiple scans, from dissimilar directions are usually helpful to obtain information about all sides of the subject. These scans take to be brought into a mutual reference system, a process that is usually chosen alignment or registration, and then merged to create a complete 3D model. This whole process, going from the unmarried range map to the whole model, is normally known as the 3D scanning pipeline.[8] [nine] [10] [11] [12]

Technology [edit]

There are a variety of technologies for digitally acquiring the shape of a 3D object. The techniques piece of work with most or all sensor types including optical, acoustic, laser scanning,[13] radar, thermal,[14] and seismic.[15] [xvi] A well established classification[17] divides them into two types: contact and non-contact. Non-contact solutions can be further divided into two main categories, active and passive. There are a variety of technologies that fall nether each of these categories.

Contact [edit]

Contact 3D scanners probe the subject through physical touch, while the object is in contact with or resting on a precision flat surface plate, ground and polished to a specific maximum of surface roughness. Where the object to be scanned is non apartment or can non rest stably on a flat surface, it is supported and held firmly in identify by a fixture.

The scanner machinery may have three different forms:

  • A carriage system with rigid arms held tightly in perpendicular relationship and each axis gliding forth a track. Such systems work best with flat contour shapes or simple convex curved surfaces.
  • An articulated arm with rigid bones and loftier precision angular sensors. The location of the end of the arm involves complex math computing the wrist rotation bending and hinge angle of each joint. This is ideal for probing into crevasses and interior spaces with a small rima oris opening.
  • A combination of both methods may be used, such as an articulated arm suspended from a traveling carriage, for mapping large objects with interior cavities or overlapping surfaces.

A CMM (coordinate measuring car) is an example of a contact 3D scanner. It is used mostly in manufacturing and tin be very precise. The disadvantage of CMMs though, is that information technology requires contact with the object being scanned. Thus, the act of scanning the object might change or damage it. This fact is very meaning when scanning delicate or valuable objects such every bit historical artifacts. The other disadvantage of CMMs is that they are relatively ho-hum compared to the other scanning methods. Physically moving the arm that the probe is mounted on can be very slow and the fastest CMMs can just operate on a few hundred hertz. In contrast, an optical system similar a laser scanner can operate from 10 to 500 kHz.[18]

Other examples are the hand driven bear on probes used to digitise clay models in computer blitheness industry.

Non-contact agile [edit]

Active scanners emit some kind of radiations or light and detect its reflection or radiation passing through object in order to probe an object or environs. Possible types of emissions used include lite, ultrasound or x-ray.

Fourth dimension-of-flight [edit]

This lidar scanner may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, etc., to produce a 3D model. The lidar can aim its laser axle in a wide range: its head rotates horizontally, a mirror flips vertically. The laser beam is used to mensurate the distance to the outset object on its path.

The time-of-flight 3D laser scanner is an active scanner that uses light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation light to probe the subject. At the heart of this type of scanner is a time-of-flying light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder. The laser range finder finds the altitude of a surface by timing the round-trip fourth dimension of a pulse of light. A laser is used to emit a pulse of light and the corporeality of time earlier the reflected light is seen by a detector is measured. Since the speed of light c {\displaystyle c} is known, the round-trip time determines the travel distance of the light, which is twice the distance betwixt the scanner and the surface. If t {\displaystyle t} is the round-trip time, then altitude is equal to c ⋅ t / 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle c\!\cdot \!t/2} . The accuracy of a time-of-flight 3D laser scanner depends on how precisely we can measure the t {\displaystyle t} time: 3.three picoseconds (approx.) is the time taken for light to travel 1 millimetre.

The laser range finder only detects the distance of one point in its direction of view. Thus, the scanner scans its entire field of view one point at a time by changing the range finder'south direction of view to scan different points. The view direction of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation range finder tin can be inverse either by rotating the range finder itself, or by using a arrangement of rotating mirrors. The latter method is commonly used because mirrors are much lighter and can thus be rotated much faster and with greater accuracy. Typical time-of-flight 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners can measure the distance of 10,000~100,000 points every second.

Time-of-flight devices are also available in a second configuration. This is referred to every bit a time-of-flight camera.[nineteen]

Triangulation [edit]

Principle of a laser triangulation sensor. Ii object positions are shown.

Triangulation based 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanners are too active scanners that use laser calorie-free to probe the environment. With respect to time-of-flight 3D laser scanner the triangulation light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation shines a laser on the subject and exploits a camera to wait for the location of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot. Depending on how far away the laser strikes a surface, the laser dot appears at dissimilar places in the camera'due south field of view. This technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, the photographic camera and the laser emitter form a triangle. The length of one side of the triangle, the distance between the camera and the laser emitter is known. The angle of the laser emitter corner is also known. The angle of the camera corner can be adamant by looking at the location of the laser dot in the camera'south field of view. These 3 pieces of data fully determine the shape and size of the triangle and give the location of the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot corner of the triangle.[twenty] In most cases a laser stripe, instead of a single light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation dot, is swept across the object to speed up the conquering process. The National Enquiry Council of Canada was among the starting time institutes to develop the triangulation based laser scanning technology in 1978.[21]

Strengths and weaknesses [edit]

Time-of-flight and triangulation range finders each have strengths and weaknesses that make them suitable for unlike situations. The advantage of fourth dimension-of-flight range finders is that they are capable of operating over very long distances, on the order of kilometres. These scanners are thus suitable for scanning big structures similar buildings or geographic features. The disadvantage of time-of-flight range finders is their accuracy. Due to the high speed of low-cal, timing the round-trip time is difficult and the accuracy of the distance measurement is relatively low, on the order of millimetres.

Triangulation range finders are exactly the opposite. They have a limited range of some meters, but their accurateness is relatively loftier. The accurateness of triangulation range finders is on the social club of tens of micrometers.

Time-of-flight scanners' accuracy tin be lost when the laser hits the edge of an object because the information that is sent back to the scanner is from two different locations for one laser pulse. The coordinate relative to the scanner'south position for a bespeak that has hitting the edge of an object volition be calculated based on an boilerplate and therefore volition put the point in the incorrect place. When using a loftier resolution scan on an object the chances of the beam hitting an border are increased and the resulting information will show dissonance just backside the edges of the object. Scanners with a smaller beam width will aid to solve this problem but will be limited by range equally the beam width will increment over distance. Software can also help past determining that the beginning object to exist hit by the laser beam should cancel out the second.

At a rate of 10,000 sample points per 2d, low resolution scans tin take less than a second, only loftier resolution scans, requiring millions of samples, can accept minutes for some time-of-flight scanners. The trouble this creates is distortion from move. Since each point is sampled at a dissimilar time, any move in the subject area or the scanner will distort the collected data. Thus, it is usually necessary to mount both the field of study and the scanner on stable platforms and minimise vibration. Using these scanners to scan objects in move is very difficult.

Recently, in that location has been research on compensating for distortion from small amounts of vibration[22] and distortions due to motion and/or rotation.[23]

Short-range laser scanners can't usually encompass a depth of field more than 1 meter.[24] When scanning in i position for any length of time slight movement can occur in the scanner position due to changes in temperature. If the scanner is set on a tripod and there is strong sunlight on one side of the scanner then that side of the tripod will expand and slowly distort the browse data from one side to another. Some laser scanners accept level compensators built into them to counteract any movement of the scanner during the browse process.

Conoscopic holography [edit]

In a conoscopic organization, a laser beam is projected onto the surface and and then the immediate reflection along the same ray-path are put through a conoscopic crystal and projected onto a CCD. The result is a diffraction pattern, that can be frequency analyzed to determine the distance to the measured surface. The main reward with conoscopic holography is that only a single ray-path is needed for measuring, thus giving an opportunity to measure out for instance the depth of a finely drilled hole.[25]

Paw-held laser scanners [edit]

Manus-held laser scanners create a 3D image through the triangulation mechanism described above: a laser dot or line is projected onto an object from a hand-held device and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled device or position sensitive device) measures the distance to the surface. Data is collected in relation to an internal coordinate organisation and therefore to collect information where the scanner is in motion the position of the scanner must be determined. The position can exist determined past the scanner using reference features on the surface beingness scanned (typically adhesive cogitating tabs, only natural features have been also used in enquiry piece of work)[26] [27] or by using an external tracking method. External tracking often takes the grade of a laser tracker (to provide the sensor position) with integrated camera (to determine the orientation of the scanner) or a photogrammetric solution using 3 or more than cameras providing the complete six degrees of freedom of the scanner. Both techniques tend to use infra red light-emitting diodes attached to the scanner which are seen by the camera(due south) through filters providing resilience to ambient lighting.[28]

Information is collected by a reckoner and recorded as data points inside iii-dimensional space, with processing this tin can exist converted into a triangulated mesh and then a estimator-aided design model, often as non-uniform rational B-spline surfaces. Paw-held laser scanners tin can combine this information with passive, visible-lite sensors — which capture surface textures and colors — to build (or "contrary engineer") a full 3D model.

Structured light [edit]

Structured-low-cal 3D scanners project a pattern of light on the subject and expect at the deformation of the pattern on the subject. The pattern is projected onto the subject using either an LCD projector or other stable light source. A photographic camera, offset slightly from the pattern projector, looks at the shape of the pattern and calculates the distance of every indicate in the field of view.

Structured-light scanning is still a very agile surface area of research with many research papers published each yr. Perfect maps have also been proven useful as structured calorie-free patterns that solve the correspondence trouble and allow for fault detection and error correction.[24] [Run into Morano, R., et al. "Structured Light Using Pseudorandom Codes," IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.

The advantage of structured-light 3D scanners is speed and precision. Instead of scanning one point at a time, structured lite scanners browse multiple points or the entire field of view at in one case. Scanning an entire field of view in a fraction of a 2nd reduces or eliminates the problem of baloney from motion. Some existing systems are capable of scanning moving objects in real-time.

A existent-time scanner using digital fringe project and phase-shifting technique (certain kinds of structured light methods) was adult, to capture, reconstruct, and return high-density details of dynamically deformable objects (such as facial expressions) at twoscore frames per 2d.[29] Recently, some other scanner has been developed. Different patterns can be applied to this system, and the frame rate for capturing and data processing achieves 120 frames per second. It can too scan isolated surfaces, for example 2 moving hands.[thirty] Past utilising the binary defocusing technique, speed breakthroughs accept been made that could accomplish hundreds [31] to thousands of frames per 2d.[32]

Modulated low-cal [edit]

Modulated light 3D scanners shine a continually changing light at the subject. Usually the calorie-free source simply cycles its amplitude in a sinusoidal pattern. A photographic camera detects the reflected light and the corporeality the blueprint is shifted by determines the altitude the lite travelled. Modulated light likewise allows the scanner to ignore light from sources other than a laser, so there is no interference.

Volumetric techniques [edit]

Medical [edit]

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method which generates a three-dimensional image of the within of an object from a big series of ii-dimensional X-ray images, similarly magnetic resonance imaging is another medical imaging technique that provides much greater contrast between the dissimilar soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it particularly useful in neurological (encephalon), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging. These techniques produce a discrete 3D volumetric representation that can be direct visualised, manipulated or converted to traditional 3D surface past mean of isosurface extraction algorithms.

Industrial [edit]

Although nearly common in medicine, industrial computed tomography, microtomography and MRI are also used in other fields for acquiring a digital representation of an object and its interior, such every bit not subversive materials testing, opposite engineering, or studying biological and paleontological specimens.

Non-contact passive [edit]

Passive 3D imaging solutions do not emit any kind of radiation themselves, merely instead rely on detecting reflected ambience radiation. About solutions of this blazon notice visible calorie-free because it is a readily available ambience radiation. Other types of radiations, such as infra red could also be used. Passive methods can exist very inexpensive, considering in most cases they practice not need item hardware just simple digital cameras.

  • Stereoscopic systems usually apply two video cameras, slightly apart, looking at the same scene. By analysing the slight differences between the images seen by each photographic camera, it is possible to determine the altitude at each point in the images. This method is based on the same principles driving human stereoscopic vision[1].
  • Photometric systems usually use a single camera, simply take multiple images under varying lighting conditions. These techniques attempt to capsize the image formation model in club to recover the surface orientation at each pixel.
  • Silhouette techniques use outlines created from a sequence of photographs around a three-dimensional object against a well contrasted background. These silhouettes are extruded and intersected to form the visual hull approximation of the object. With these approaches some concavities of an object (similar the interior of a bowl) cannot be detected.

Photogrammetric not-contact passive methods [edit]

Images taken from multiple perspectives such as a fixed camera array can be taken of a subject for a photogrammetric reconstruction pipeline to generate a 3D mesh or signal cloud.

Photogrammetry provides reliable data nigh 3D shapes of physical objects based on analysis of photographic images. The resulting 3D data is typically provided as a 3D point deject, 3D mesh or 3D points.[33] Modern photogrammetry software applications automatically clarify a big number of digital images for 3D reconstruction, however manual interaction may be required if the software cannot automatically determine the 3D positions of the photographic camera in the images which is an essential stride in the reconstruction pipeline. Various software packages are available including PhotoModeler, Geodetic Systems, Autodesk ReCap, RealityCapture and Agisoft Metashape (see comparing of photogrammetry software).

  • Close range photogrammetry typically uses a handheld camera such as a DSLR with a fixed focal length lens to capture images of objects for 3D reconstruction.[34] Subjects include smaller objects such equally a edifice facade, vehicles, sculptures, rocks, and shoes.
  • Photographic camera Arrays tin be used to generate 3D point clouds or meshes of live objects such as people or pets by synchronizing multiple cameras to photograph a discipline from multiple perspectives at the aforementioned fourth dimension for 3D object reconstruction.[35]
  • Broad angle photogrammetry can exist used to capture the interior of buildings or enclosed spaces using a wide angle lens camera such every bit a 360 camera.
  • Aerial photogrammetry uses aerial images acquired by satellite, commercial shipping or UAV drone to collect images of buildings, structures and terrain for 3D reconstruction into a indicate deject or mesh.

Acquisition from acquired sensor data [edit]

Semi-automated building extraction from lidar data and high-resolution images is too a possibility. Once again, this arroyo allows modelling without physically moving towards the location or object.[36] From airborne lidar information, digital surface model (DSM) tin exist generated and then the objects higher than the ground are automatically detected from the DSM. Based on general cognition most buildings, geometric characteristics such every bit size, height and shape information are then used to separate the buildings from other objects. The extracted building outlines are then simplified using an orthogonal algorithm to obtain better cartographic quality. Watershed analysis can be conducted to extract the ridgelines of building roofs. The ridgelines besides as slope data are used to classify the buildings per type. The buildings are then reconstructed using iii parametric building models (flat, gabled, hipped).[37]

Acquisition from on-site sensors [edit]

Lidar and other terrestrial laser scanning applied science[38] offers the fastest, automatic way to collect height or altitude information. lidar or laser for height measurement of buildings is becoming very promising.[39] Commercial applications of both airborne lidar and ground laser scanning engineering science take proven to be fast and accurate methods for building meridian extraction. The building extraction job is needed to decide building locations, ground height, orientations, building size, rooftop heights, etc. Near buildings are described to sufficient details in terms of general polyhedra, i.e., their boundaries can exist represented by a set of planar surfaces and directly lines. Further processing such as expressing building footprints as polygons is used for data storing in GIS databases.

Using light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scans and images taken from ground level and a bird'south-heart perspective, Fruh and Zakhor nowadays an approach to automatically create textured 3D city models. This approach involves registering and merging the detailed facade models with a complementary airborne model. The airborne modeling process generates a half-meter resolution model with a bird's-center view of the entire area, containing terrain profile and building tops. Ground-based modeling process results in a detailed model of the building facades. Using the DSM obtained from airborne laser scans, they localize the acquisition vehicle and register the basis-based facades to the airborne model by means of Monte Carlo localization (MCL). Finally, the two models are merged with different resolutions to obtain a 3D model.

Using an airborne light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation altimeter, Haala, Brenner and Anders combined height information with the existing ground plans of buildings. The footing plans of buildings had already been acquired either in analog grade by maps and plans or digitally in a 2D GIS. The project was done in order to enable an automatic data capture by the integration of these dissimilar types of information. Afterwards virtual reality metropolis models are generated in the project by texture processing, e.g. by mapping of terrestrial images. The project demonstrated the feasibility of rapid acquisition of 3D urban GIS. Ground plans proved are another very important source of information for 3D edifice reconstruction. Compared to results of automatic procedures, these ground plans proved more reliable since they contain aggregated information which has been made explicit past human interpretation. For this reason, basis plans, tin considerably reduce costs in a reconstruction project. An example of existing ground programme data usable in building reconstruction is the Digital Cadastral map, which provides information on the distribution of property, including the borders of all agricultural areas and the footing plans of existing buildings. Additionally information equally street names and the usage of buildings (e.g. garage, residential building, office block, industrial building, church) is provided in the form of text symbols. At the moment the Digital Cadastral map is built up as a database covering an surface area, mainly equanimous by digitizing preexisting maps or plans.

Cost [edit]

  • Terrestrial laser scan devices (pulse or phase devices) + processing software generally start at a price of €150,000. Some less precise devices (as the Trimble VX) cost around €75,000.
  • Terrestrial lidar systems cost around €300,000.
  • Systems using regular notwithstanding cameras mounted on RC helicopters (Photogrammetry) are also possible, and toll effectually €25,000. Systems that use notwithstanding cameras with balloons are fifty-fifty cheaper (around €2,500), but require additional manual processing. Equally the manual processing takes effectually i calendar month of labor for every twenty-four hours of taking pictures, this is still an expensive solution in the long run.
  • Obtaining satellite images is also an expensive endeavor. High resolution stereo images (0.five 1000 resolution) cost effectually €xi,000. Image satellites include Quikbird, Ikonos. High resolution monoscopic images toll effectually €5,500. Somewhat lower resolution images (e.one thousand. from the CORONA satellite; with a two m resolution) cost effectually €1,000 per 2 images. Notation that Google Earth images are too low in resolution to make an authentic 3D model.[xl]

Reconstruction [edit]

From point clouds [edit]

The indicate clouds produced past 3D scanners and 3D imaging can be used directly for measurement and visualisation in the architecture and structure globe.

From models [edit]

Well-nigh applications, all the same, use instead polygonal 3D models, NURBS surface models, or editable feature-based CAD models (aka solid models).

  • Polygon mesh models: In a polygonal representation of a shape, a curved surface is modeled as many pocket-size faceted flat surfaces (think of a sphere modeled as a disco brawl). Polygon models—as well called Mesh models, are useful for visualisation, for some CAM (i.eastward., machining), but are generally "heavy" ( i.e., very large data sets), and are relatively un-editable in this form. Reconstruction to polygonal model involves finding and connecting adjacent points with straight lines in order to create a continuous surface. Many applications, both free and nonfree, are bachelor for this purpose (e.thousand. GigaMesh, MeshLab, PointCab, kubit PointCloud for AutoCAD, Reconstructor, imagemodel, PolyWorks, Rapidform, Geomagic, Imageware, Rhinoceros 3D etc.).
  • Surface models: The adjacent level of sophistication in modeling involves using a quilt of curved surface patches to model the shape. These might be NURBS, TSplines or other curved representations of curved topology. Using NURBS, the spherical shape becomes a true mathematical sphere. Some applications offer patch layout past manus but the best in class offer both automatic patch layout and manual layout. These patches take the advantage of existence lighter and more manipulable when exported to CAD. Surface models are somewhat editable, merely just in a sculptural sense of pushing and pulling to deform the surface. This representation lends itself well to modelling organic and artistic shapes. Providers of surface modellers include Rapidform, Geomagic, Rhino 3D, Maya, T Splines etc.
  • Solid CAD models: From an engineering/manufacturing perspective, the ultimate representation of a digitised shape is the editable, parametric CAD model. In CAD, the sphere is described by parametric features which are hands edited by changing a value (e.1000., eye bespeak and radius).

These CAD models describe not merely the envelope or shape of the object, but CAD models likewise embody the "design intent" (i.e., critical features and their relationship to other features). An example of blueprint intent not axiomatic in the shape lone might be a brake drum'south lug bolts, which must exist concentric with the pigsty in the centre of the drum. This knowledge would drive the sequence and method of creating the CAD model; a designer with an awareness of this relationship would not design the lug bolts referenced to the outside diameter, but instead, to the centre. A modeler creating a CAD model volition want to include both Shape and design intent in the consummate CAD model.

Vendors offering dissimilar approaches to getting to the parametric CAD model. Some export the NURBS surfaces and leave it to the CAD designer to complete the model in CAD (eastward.1000., Geomagic, Imageware, Rhino 3D). Others use the browse information to create an editable and verifiable feature based model that is imported into CAD with full feature tree intact, yielding a complete, native CAD model, capturing both shape and blueprint intent (due east.thou. Geomagic, Rapidform). For case, the market offers diverse plug-ins for established CAD-programs, such as SolidWorks. Xtract3D, DezignWorks and Geomagic for SolidWorks allow manipulating a 3D scan straight inside SolidWorks. Still other CAD applications are robust enough to manipulate limited points or polygon models within the CAD surroundings (e.g., CATIA, AutoCAD, Revit).

From a set of 2D slices [edit]

3D reconstruction of the brain and eyeballs from CT scanned DICOM images. In this image, areas with the density of bone or air were made transparent, and the slices stacked up in an approximate costless-space alignment. The outer ring of material effectually the brain are the soft tissues of skin and muscle on the exterior of the skull. A black box encloses the slices to provide the blackness background. Since these are simply 2D images stacked up, when viewed on edge the slices disappear since they have effectively zero thickness. Each DICOM scan represents about v mm of textile averaged into a thin slice.

CT, industrial CT, MRI, or micro-CT scanners do not produce point clouds but a set of 2D slices (each termed a "tomogram") which are then 'stacked together' to produce a 3D representation. There are several ways to do this depending on the output required:

  • Volume rendering: Dissimilar parts of an object usually have different threshold values or greyscale densities. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models tin be constructed from various thresholds, allowing dissimilar colours to represent each component of the object. Volume rendering is usually only used for visualisation of the scanned object.
  • Image partition: Where different structures accept similar threshold/greyscale values, it can become incommunicable to carve up them merely by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is chosen segmentation, a manual or automated procedure that tin remove the unwanted structures from the image. Image partitioning software usually allows export of the segmented structures in CAD or STL format for further manipulation.
  • Image-based meshing: When using 3D image data for computational analysis (eastward.1000. CFD and FEA), simply segmenting the information and meshing from CAD can become time-consuming, and virtually intractable for the complex topologies typical of image data. The solution is called image-based meshing, an automated process of generating an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the browse information.

From laser scans [edit]

Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning describes the general method to sample or scan a surface using laser technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly differ in the ability of the lasers that are used, and in the results of the scanning process. Low laser power is used when the scanned surface doesn't have to be influenced, e.g. when it simply has to be digitised. Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get data about the scanned surface. Another low-power awarding uses structured calorie-free projection systems for solar prison cell flatness metrology,[41] enabling stress calculation throughout in excess of 2000 wafers per hour.[42]

The laser power used for laser scanning equipment in industrial applications is typically less than 1W. The power level is usually on the order of 200 mW or less but sometimes more.

From photographs [edit]

3D information conquering and object reconstruction can be performed using stereo image pairs. Stereo photogrammetry or photogrammetry based on a block of overlapped images is the primary approach for 3D mapping and object reconstruction using 2nd images. Shut-range photogrammetry has also matured to the level where cameras or digital cameras tin can be used to capture the close-wait images of objects, e.g., buildings, and reconstruct them using the very same theory as the aerial photogrammetry. An example of software which could do this is Vexcel FotoG 5.[43] [44] This software has at present been replaced by Vexcel GeoSynth.[45] Another similar software program is Microsoft Photosynth.[46] [47]

A semi-automated method for acquiring 3D topologically structured data from 2D aerial stereo images has been presented past Sisi Zlatanova.[48] The process involves the manual digitizing of a number of points necessary for automatically reconstructing the 3D objects. Each reconstructed object is validated past superimposition of its wire frame graphics in the stereo model. The topologically structured 3D information is stored in a database and are also used for visualization of the objects. Notable software used for 3D data acquisition using 2D images include e.g. Agisoft Metashape,[49] RealityCapture,[fifty] and ENSAIS Engineering College TIPHON (Traitement d'Image et PHOtogrammétrie Numérique).[51]

A method for semi-automated edifice extraction together with a concept for storing edifice models alongside terrain and other topographic data in a topographical data system has been developed past Franz Rottensteiner. His approach was based on the integration of building parameter estimations into the photogrammetry procedure applying a hybrid modeling scheme. Buildings are decomposed into a set of unproblematic primitives that are reconstructed individually and are and so combined by Boolean operators. The internal data construction of both the primitives and the compound edifice models are based on the boundary representation methods[52] [53]

Multiple images are used in Zeng'due south arroyo to surface reconstruction from multiple images. A fundamental idea is to explore the integration of both 3D stereo data and second calibrated images. This approach is motivated by the fact that only robust and accurate characteristic points that survived the geometry scrutiny of multiple images are reconstructed in space. The density insufficiency and the inevitable holes in the stereo data should then be filled in by using information from multiple images. The thought is thus to first construct small surface patches from stereo points, then to progressively propagate only reliable patches in their neighborhood from images into the whole surface using a best-first strategy. The problem thus reduces to searching for an optimal local surface patch going through a given gear up of stereo points from images.

Multi-spectral images are likewise used for 3D building detection. The get-go and terminal pulse information and the normalized difference vegetation index are used in the process.[54]

New measurement techniques are also employed to obtain measurements of and between objects from unmarried images by using the projection, or the shadow as well every bit their combination. This engineering is gaining attention given its fast processing time, and far lower cost than stereo measurements.[ citation needed ]

Applications [edit]

Space Experiments [edit]

Space rock scans for the European Space Agency[55] [56]

Structure industry and civil engineering [edit]

  • Robotic control: e.k. a laser scanner may function as the "middle" of a robot.[57] [58]
  • As-congenital drawings of bridges, industrial plants, and monuments
  • Documentation of historical sites[59]
  • Site modelling and lay outing
  • Quality control
  • Quantity surveys
  • Payload monitoring [60]
  • Freeway redesign
  • Establishing a bench marker of pre-existing shape/state in order to detect structural changes resulting from exposure to farthermost loadings such as earthquake, vessel/truck impact or fire.
  • Create GIS (geographic information system) maps[61] and geomatics.
  • Subsurface laser scanning in mines and karst voids.[62]
  • Forensic documentation[63]

Design process [edit]

  • Increasing accuracy working with circuitous parts and shapes,
  • Coordinating product design using parts from multiple sources,
  • Updating onetime CD scans with those from more than current engineering science,
  • Replacing missing or older parts,
  • Creating price savings past allowing equally-built design services, for example in automotive manufacturing plants,
  • "Bringing the plant to the engineers" with web shared scans, and
  • Saving travel costs.

Entertainment [edit]

3D scanners are used past the amusement industry to create digital 3D models for movies, video games and leisure purposes.[64] They are heavily utilized in virtual cinematography. In cases where a real-world equivalent of a model exists, it is much faster to scan the real-world object than to manually create a model using 3D modeling software. Frequently, artists sculpt concrete models of what they desire and scan them into digital form rather than straight creating digital models on a calculator.

3D photography [edit]

3D selfie in ane:20 scale printed by Shapeways using gypsum-based press, created past Madurodam miniature park from 2d pictures taken at its Fantasitron photo booth.

3D scanners are evolving for the use of cameras to stand for 3D objects in an accurate manner.[65] Companies are emerging since 2010 that create 3D portraits of people (3D figurines or 3D selfie).

An augmented reality menu for the Madrid eatery chain 80 Degrees[66]

Police force enforcement [edit]

3D laser scanning is used past the law enforcement agencies around the globe. 3D models are used for on-site documentation of:[67]

  • Crime scenes
  • Bullet trajectories
  • Bloodstain pattern assay
  • Accident reconstruction
  • Bombings
  • Plane crashes, and more

Opposite engineering [edit]

Opposite applied science of a mechanical component requires a precise digital model of the objects to exist reproduced. Rather than a ready of points a precise digital model tin can exist represented by a polygon mesh, a set of flat or curved NURBS surfaces, or ideally for mechanical components, a CAD solid model. A 3D scanner can exist used to digitise gratuitous-form or gradually changing shaped components besides as prismatic geometries whereas a coordinate measuring machine is usually used merely to decide simple dimensions of a highly prismatic model. These data points are then processed to create a usable digital model, unremarkably using specialized contrary engineering software.

Real estate [edit]

Land or buildings can be scanned into a 3D model, which allows buyers to tour and inspect the holding remotely, anywhere, without having to exist present at the property.[68] There is already at least one company providing 3D-scanned virtual real estate tours.[69] A typical virtual tour Archived 2017-04-27 at the Wayback Auto would consist of dollhouse view,[70] inside view, likewise as a floor program.

Virtual/remote tourism [edit]

The environment at a place of interest can be captured and converted into a 3D model. This model tin can and so be explored by the public, either through a VR interface or a traditional "2D" interface. This allows the user to explore locations which are inconvenient for travel.[71] A group of history students at Vancouver iTech Preparatory Middle Schoolhouse created a Virtual Museum past 3D Scanning more than than 100 artifacts.[72]

Cultural heritage [edit]

At that place accept been many research projects undertaken via the scanning of historical sites and artifacts both for documentation and assay purposes.[73]

The combined use of 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of traditional plaster casting techniques, that in many cases can be also invasive for existence performed on precious or frail cultural heritage artifacts.[74] In an case of a typical application scenario, a gargoyle model was digitally acquired using a 3D scanner and the produced 3D information was candy using MeshLab. The resulting digital 3D model was fed to a rapid prototyping machine to create a existent resin replica of the original object.

Creation of 3D models for Museums and Archaeological artifacts[75] [76] [77]

Michelangelo [edit]

In 1999, ii different enquiry groups started scanning Michelangelo's statues. Stanford University with a grouping led by Marc Levoy[78] used a custom light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation triangulation scanner built by Cyberware to scan Michelangelo's statues in Florence, notably the David, the Prigioni and the 4 statues in The Medici Chapel. The scans produced a data point density of one sample per 0.25 mm, detailed enough to see Michelangelo's chisel marks. These detailed scans produced a large amount of data (upwards to 32 gigabytes) and processing the information from his scans took five months. Approximately in the same menstruation a enquiry grouping from IBM, led by H. Rushmeier and F. Bernardini scanned the Pietà of Florence acquiring both geometric and colour details. The digital model, result of the Stanford scanning campaign, was thoroughly used in the 2004 subsequent restoration of the statue.[79]

Monticello [edit]

In 2002, David Luebke, et al. scanned Thomas Jefferson's Monticello.[80] A commercial time of flight laser scanner, the DeltaSphere 3000, was used. The scanner data was later combined with colour data from digital photographs to create the Virtual Monticello, and the Jefferson'southward Chiffonier exhibits in the New Orleans Museum of Art in 2003. The Virtual Monticello exhibit simulated a window looking into Jefferson's Library. The exhibit consisted of a rear project display on a wall and a pair of stereo glasses for the viewer. The spectacles, combined with polarised projectors, provided a 3D upshot. Position tracking hardware on the glasses immune the display to adapt every bit the viewer moves around, creating the illusion that the display is really a hole in the wall looking into Jefferson's Library. The Jefferson's Chiffonier exhibit was a bulwark stereogram (substantially a non-active hologram that appears different from different angles) of Jefferson'due south Cabinet.

Cuneiform tablets [edit]

The starting time 3D models of cuneiform tablets were acquired in Federal republic of germany in 2000.[81] In 2003 the so-chosen Digital Hammurabi projection acquired cuneiform tablets with a laser triangulation scanner using a regular grid blueprint having a resolution of 0.025 mm (0.00098 in).[82] With the use of high-resolution 3D-scanners by the Heidelberg University for tablet acquisition in 2009 the development of the GigaMesh Software Framework began to visualize and extract cuneiform characters from 3D-models.[83] Information technology was used to process ca. ii.000 3D-digitized tablets of the Hilprecht Collection in Jena to create an Open Access benchmark dataset[84] and an annotated collection[85] of 3D-models of tablets freely available nether CC By licenses.[86]

Kasubi Tombs [edit]

A 2009 CyArk 3D scanning project at Uganda's historic Kasubi Tombs, a UNESCO Earth Heritage Site, using a Leica HDS 4500, produced detailed architectural models of Muzibu Azaala Mpanga, the main building at the complex and tomb of the Kabakas (Kings) of Republic of uganda. A burn down on March xvi, 2010, burned down much of the Muzibu Azaala Mpanga structure, and reconstruction work is likely to lean heavily upon the dataset produced by the 3D scan mission.[87]

"Plastico di Roma antica" [edit]

In 2005, Gabriele Guidi, et al. scanned the "Plastico di Roma antica",[88] a model of Rome created in the last century. Neither the triangulation method, nor the time of flight method satisfied the requirements of this projection because the detail to be scanned was both large and contained small details. They found though, that a modulated light scanner was able to provide both the ability to browse an object the size of the model and the accuracy that was needed. The modulated light scanner was supplemented by a triangulation scanner which was used to scan some parts of the model.

Other projects [edit]

The 3D Encounters Project at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology aims to use 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scanning to create a high quality 3D image library of artefacts and enable digital travelling exhibitions of frail Egyptian artefacts, English Heritage has investigated the use of 3D laser scanning for a broad range of applications to gain archaeological and condition data, and the National Conservation Middle in Liverpool has also produced 3D light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation scans on committee, including portable object and in situ scans of archaeological sites.[89] The Smithsonian Establishment has a project called Smithsonian X 3D notable for the latitude of types of 3D objects they are attempting to scan. These include small-scale objects such every bit insects and flowers, to human sized objects such as Amelia Earhart's Flight Conform to room sized objects such as the Gunboat Philadelphia to historic sites such as Liang Bua in Indonesia. Too of note the information from these scans is beingness made available to the public for free and downloadable in several data formats.

Medical CAD/CAM [edit]

3D scanners are used to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry. It gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM software are then used to design and industry the orthosis, prosthesis or dental implants.

Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental Laboratory CAD/CAM systems use 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a dental grooming (either in vivo or in vitro), in order to produce a restoration digitally using CAD software and ultimately produce the terminal restoration using a CAM engineering science (such as a CNC milling auto, or 3D printer). The chairside systems are designed to facilitate the 3D scanning of a preparation in vivo and produce the restoration (such as a Crown, Onlay, Inlay or Veneer).

Creation of 3D models for Anatomy and Biology didactics[ninety] [91] and cadaver models for educational neurosurgical simulations.[92]

Quality assurance and industrial metrology [edit]

The digitalisation of real-earth objects is of vital importance in various application domains. This method is especially applied in industrial quality assurance to measure the geometric dimension accuracy. Industrial processes such as assembly are complex, highly automatic and typically based on CAD (computer-aided design) data. The problem is that the same degree of automation is also required for quality balls. It is, for instance, a very complex chore to assemble a modern automobile, since information technology consists of many parts that must fit together at the very end of the production line. The optimal performance of this process is guaranteed past quality balls systems. Especially the geometry of the metallic parts must be checked in guild to assure that they accept the correct dimensions, fit together and finally work reliably.

Within highly automatic processes, the resulting geometric measures are transferred to machines that industry the desired objects. Due to mechanical uncertainties and abrasions, the result may differ from its digital nominal. In order to automatically capture and evaluate these deviations, the manufactured part must be digitised also. For this purpose, 3D scanners are practical to generate signal samples from the object's surface which are finally compared confronting the nominal information.[93]

The process of comparing 3D information against a CAD model is referred to as CAD-Compare, and tin be a useful technique for applications such every bit determining wear patterns on moulds and tooling, determining accurateness of final build, analysing gap and affluent, or analysing highly complex sculpted surfaces. At nowadays, laser triangulation scanners, structured light and contact scanning are the predominant technologies employed for industrial purposes, with contact scanning remaining the slowest, but overall well-nigh accurate selection. Nevertheless, 3D scanning technology offers distinct advantages compared to traditional touch on probe measurements. White-light or laser scanners accurately digitize objects all around, capturing fine details and freeform surfaces without reference points or spray. The entire surface is covered at record speed without the risk of damaging the function. Graphic comparison charts illustrate geometric deviations of full object level, providing deeper insights into potential causes.[94] [95]

Circumvention of shipping costs and international import/export tariffs [edit]

3D scanning can be used in conjunction with 3D printing technology to nearly teleport certain object across distances without the need of shipping them and in some cases incurring import/export tariffs. For instance, a plastic object can exist 3D-scanned in the United States, the files can be sent off to a 3D-printing facility over in Germany where the object is replicated, effectively teleporting the object beyond the globe. In the future, as 3D scanning and 3D printing technologies become more and more than prevalent, governments around the world will demand to reconsider and rewrite trade agreements and international laws.

Object reconstruction [edit]

Afterward the data has been collected, the caused (and sometimes already candy) information from images or sensors needs to exist reconstructed. This may be done in the same program or in some cases, the 3D information needs to exist exported and imported into another program for further refining, and/or to add additional data. Such additional data could be gps-location data, ... Likewise, after the reconstruction, the data might be directly implemented into a local (GIS) map[96] [97] or a worldwide map such equally Google Globe.

Software [edit]

Several software packages are used in which the acquired (and sometimes already candy) data from images or sensors is imported. Notable software packages include:[98]

  • Qlone
  • 3DF Zephyr
  • Canoma
  • Leica Photogrammetry Suite
  • MeshLab
  • MountainsMap SEM (microscopy applications just)
  • PhotoModeler
  • SketchUp
  • tomviz

Come across also [edit]

  • 3D computer graphics software
  • 3D printing
  • 3D reconstruction
  • 3D selfie
  • Angle-sensitive pixel
  • Depth map
  • Digitization
  • Epipolar geometry
  • Full torso scanner
  • Paradigm reconstruction
  • Light-field camera
  • Photogrammetry
  • Range imaging
  • Remote sensing
  • Structured-calorie-free 3D scanner
  • Thingiverse

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_scanning

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